Organizational Behavior †Motivation Essay Example Essay Example

Organizational Behavior – Motivation Essay Example Paper Organizational Behavior – Motivation Essay Introduction MGMT 2008 – Organisational Behaviour Motivation Theory Throughout the Caribbean, managers are continually challenged to motivate a workforce to do two things: work towards helping the organization achieve its goals, and to work towards achieving their own personal goals. In order to successfully do this, they must first properly understand the concept of motivation. The Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary defines a motive as â€Å"something (a need or desire) that causes a person to act. Motivation, in turn, is defined as the act or process of providing a motive that causes a person to take some action. In most cases motivation comes from some need that leads to behavior that results in some type of reward when the need is fulfilled. Thus, managers have the responsibility of making employees willing to exert high levels of effort, sufficient to achieve their personal needs as well as the organisation’s goals. Psychologists have studied human motivation extensive ly and have derived a variety of theories about what motivates people. These include theories that focus on motivation being a function of 1) employee needs of various types, 2) extrinsic factors, and 3) intrinsic factors. One major needs-based theory was that of Abraham Maslow which focused on satisfying the needs of employees to keep them motivated. Maslow (1954) proposed a hierarchy of needs that progresses from the lowest, subsistence-level needs to the highest level of self- actualization. Once each level has been met, the theory is that an individual will be motivated by and strive to progress to satisfy the next higher level of need. Basically this hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs. This hierarchy is most often isplayed as a pyramid with the most basic needs at the lowest levels of the pyramid, while the more complex needs are located at the top. Those needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical requirements including the need for food, water, sleep, and warmth. Once these lower-level needs have been met, people can move on to the next level of needs, which are for safety and security. Organizational Behavior – Motivation Essay Body Paragraphs As people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social. Soon, the need for love, friendship, and intimacy become important. Further up the pyramid, the eed for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority. Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a process of growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential, located at the tip of the pyramid. Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating behavior. Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are referred to as deficiency needs (also known as D-needs), meaning that these needs arise due to deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences. The highest-level of the pyramid was termed as growth needs (also known as being-needs or a-needs). Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person. Frederick Herzberg (2003) and his ‘Two Factor Theory further modified MasloWs needs theory and consolidated down to two areas of needs that motivated that deal with Job context and lead to Job dissatisfaction (company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, salary, status, and security); while motivators are those factors that deal with Job content nd lead to Job satisfaction (achievement, recognition for achievement, the work itself, responsibility and growth or advancement). Herzberg’s findings revealed that certain characteristics of a Job are consistently related to Job satisfaction, while different factors are associated with Job dissatisfaction. The conclusion he drew is that Job satisfaction and Job dissatisfaction are not opposites. The opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction and the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction. Remedying the causes of dissatisfaction will not create satisfacti on. Nor will adding the factors of Job satisfaction eliminate Job dissatisfaction. In order to adequately motivate employees, managers must first removed the sources of Job dissatisfaction and subsequently and those of satisfaction. The search for needs- based motivation theories also leads to McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, which surrounds the idea that needs are acquired throughout life. That is, needs are not genetic, but are learned or developed as a result of one’s life experiences (McClelland, 1985). This theory stipulates that there are three major types of needs, hich are the need for achievement (which emphasizes the desires for success, for mastering tasks, and for attaining goals); the need for affiliation (which focuses on the desire for relationships and associations with others); and, the need for power (which relates to the desires for responsibility for, control of, and authority over others). All of these theories approach needs from a somewhat dif ferent perspective and are helpful in understanding employee motivation on the basis of needs. However, other theories of motivation also have been posited and require consideration by managers in compiling motivational strategies. Another approach to understanding motivation focuses on external factors and their role in understanding employee motivation. Best known for this is B. F. Skinner’s (1953) Reinforcement Theory which studied human behavior and proposed that individuals are motivated when their behaviors are reinforced. His theory is comprised of four types of reinforcement. The first two are associated with achieving desirable behaviors, while the last two address undesirable behaviors. Positive reinforcement’ relates to taking action that rewards positive behaviors; ‘avoidance learning’ occurs hen actions are taken to reward behaviors that avoid undesirable or negative behaviors. This is sometimes referred to as negative reinforcement. ‘Pu nishment’ includes actions designed to reduce undesirable behaviors by creating negative consequences for the individual; and, ‘extinction’ represents the removal of positive rewards for undesirable behaviors. Theories that are based on intrinsic factors focus on internal thought processes and perceptions about motivation. Examples of these kinds of theories include Adam’s Equity Theory which proposes that individuals are otivated when they perceive that they are treated equitably in comparison to others within the organization (Adams, 1963); Vroom’s Expectancy Theory which addresses the expectations of individuals and hypothesizes that they are motivated by performance and the expected outcomes of their own behaviors (Vroom, 1964); and, Locke’s Goal Setting Theory which hypothesizes that by establishing goals individuals each of these theories deals with a particular aspect of motivation, studies have found it unrealistic to address them in isolation, since these factors often do come nto play in and are important to employee motivation at one time or another. Other approaches to motivation are driven by aspects of management, such as productivity, human resources, and other considerations. The most famous theory in this regard is McGregor’s Theory X and Theory. Created by Douglas McGregor, this approach again draws upon the work of Herzberg and develops a human resources management approach to motivation. This theory first classifies managers into one of two groups. Theory X managers adopt an authoritarian style and generally believe that the verage person dislikes work and will avoid it he/she can; therefore most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work towards organisational objectives; and the average person prefers to be directed, to avoid responsibility, is relatively unambitious, and wants security above all else. Theory Y managers, on the other hand, take a participative management app roach and believe that effort in work is as natural as work and play; people will apply self-control and self-direction in the pursuit of organisational objectives, without external control or the threat of unishment; commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement; and people usually accept and often seek responsibility. Altogether, whilst all of the aforementioned theories are helpful in understanding management and motivation from a conceptual perspective, it is important to recognize that most managers draw upon a combination of needs, extrinsic factors, and intrinsic factors in an effort to help motivate employees, to help employees meet their own personal needs and goals, and ultimately to achieve effectiveness and balance within the rganization. Managers should take into account most of the aspects upon which these theories focus, namely expectancy, goal setting, performance, feedback, equity, satisfaction, and commitment for example, when they are developing a motivational strategy for their employees. The literature which surrounds motivation theory suggest a wide range of strategies for managers to implement in seeking to help motivate employees. First off, managers should expect the best from their employees as persons tend to live up to the expectations they and others have of them. (Manton, 2005, p. 292). They should also seek to reward desired behaviours and ensure that rewards are not given for undesirable behaviors and be sure to use many different types of rewards to achieve the desired outcomes (Manton, 2005, p. 295). Allowing subordinates to take responsibility for their own motivation is another strategy. This can be achieved by managers taking steps to deal with problem employees, to understand employees’ needs, to determine what motivates their employees, to engage employees in the problem-solving process, and to really work hard at resolving, rather than ignoring, difficult employee problems (Ni cholson, 2003). Additionally managers show seek to play to the employees’ strengths, promote high performance, and focus on how they learn. This requires them to know what their employees’ strengths and weaknesses are, to find out what will be required to get specific employees to perform, and to understand how to capitalize on the ways those employees learn as an alternative method of encouraging and motivating them (Buckingham, 2005). Motivating an employee is a delicate task. Caribbean managers effectively put them in practice. Should these managers place more focus on roviding their employees with sufficient extrinsic rewards for desired performances, there is an increased likelihood that said employees will become motivated. However, creating an environment which facilitates employees’ satisfaction of intrinsic needs, is equally as important in motivating employees and keeping them motivated. References The Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary Herzber g, F. (2003, January). One more time: how do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review. Locke, E. A. , Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Maslow, A. H. 1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper Row. McClelland, D. C. (1985). Human motivation. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley. Adams, J. S. (1963, November). Towards an understanding of inequity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Manton, J. (2005). From management to leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Nicholson, N. (2003, January). How to motivate your problem people. Harvard Business Review. Buckingham, M. (2005, March). What great managers do. Harvard Business Review. We will write a custom essay sample on Organizational Behavior – Motivation Essay Example specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Organizational Behavior – Motivation Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Organizational Behavior – Motivation Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Legal And Ethical Issues Involved In Sentencing Mentally Disordered Offenders

Legal And Ethical Issues Involved In Sentencing Mentally Disordered Offenders Free Online Research Papers Legal And Ethical Issues Involved In Sentencing Mentally Disordered Offenders. An Evaluation of Current Legislation and Legislative Proposals In Light Of These Concerns ABSTRACT This Research Paper provides background on the ethical and legal plight of sentencing mentally disordered offenders and highlights some of the issues which have generated comment or concern. It will study the current legislation on sentencing the legally insane, evaluating both local and international law in an effort to capture the concept behind the legislation. At the end of the paper the aim will be to offer well researched legislative proposals that seek to modify the issues highlighted. INTRODUCTION It’s a fact that most people can attest to knowing a mentally ill person. The proximity of the relationship may or may not be close but it shows that the mentally ill are as much a part of society as the mentally sane in a great way. They are referred to as crazy, retarded, demented and insane; the names society brands them with are quite as many as they are crude and highlight just how little most people understand about the mentally ill. BACKGROUND The earliest explanation of what we now refer to as psychopathology involved the possession by evil spirits and demons. Many believed, even as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that the bizarre behavior associated with mental illness could only be an act of the devil himself. To remedy this, many individuals suffering from mental illness were tortured in an attempt to drive out the demon. When the torturous methods failed to return the person to sanity, they were typically deemed eternally possessed and were executed. There is limited evidence by which to judge the existence or nature of mental disorders in early man prior to written records although there is evidence from Neolithic times of the practice of trepanation , possibly as an attempt to cure ailments which may have included mental disorders. Limited notes in an ancient Egyptian document known as the Ebers papyrus appear to describe disordered states of concentration and attention, and emotional distress in the heart or mind. Ancient Hindu scriptures known as Ramayana and Mahabharata contain fictional descriptions of depression and anxiety states. Mental disorders were generally thought to reflect abstract metaphysical entities, supernatural agents, sorcery or witchcraft. Among the Chinese Mental disorders were treated mainly under Traditional Chinese Medicine by herbs, acupuncture or emotional therapy. Some ancient Greek scholars proposed that disease was caused by an imbalance in four humors of the body. Hippocrates, influenced by humoral theory, proposed a triad of mental disorders termed melancholia, mania and phrenitis . He spoke of disorders such as phobia, and is credited with being the first physician to reject supernatural or divine explanations of illness. He believed that disease was the product of environmental factors, diet and living habits, not a punishment inflicted by the gods, and that the appropriate treatment depended on which bodily fluid, or humor, had caused the problem. He objected to speculation about the etiology of madness (that it was seated in the heart and diaphragm or phren) and favored instead close behavioral observation. Plato argued that there were two types of mental illness: divinely inspired mental illness that gave the person prophetic powers and a second type that was caused by a physical disease. Aristotle, who studied under Plato, abandoned the divinely-caused mental illness theory, and proposed instead that all mental illness was caused by physical problems. Socrates considered positive aspects of mental illness including prophesying; mystical initiations and rituals; poetic inspiration; and the madness of lovers. Physician Celsus argued that insanity is really present when a continuous dementia begins due to the mind being at the mercy of imaginings. He suggested that people must heal their own souls through philosophy and personal strength. He described common practices of dietetics, bloodletting, drugs, talking therapy, incubation in temples, exorcism, incantations and amulets, as well as restraints and tortures to restore rationality, including starvation, being terrified suddenly, agitation of the spirit, and stoning and beating. Most, however, did not receive medical treatment but stayed with family or wandered the streets, vulnerable to assault and derision. Accounts of delusions from the time included people who thought themselves to be famous actors or speakers, animals, inanimate objects, or one of the gods. Under Islam, the mentally disordered were considered incapable yet deserving of humane treatment and protection. For example, Sura 4:5 of the Quran states Do not give your property which God assigned you to manage to the insane: but feed and clothe the insane with this property and tell splendid words to him. Some thought mental disorder could be caused by possession by a djin (genie), which could be either good or demon-like. There were sometimes beatings to exorcise djin, or alternatively over-zealous attempts at cures. In Christian Europe madness was often seen as a moral issue, either a punishment for sin or a test of faith and character. Christian theology endorsed various therapies, including fasting and prayer for those estranged from God and exorcism of those possessed by the devil. Thus, although mental disorder was often thought to be due to sin, other more mundane causes were also explored, including intemperate diet and alcohol, overwork, and grief. Today the actual definition of mentally ill remains somewhat unclear, containing elements deriving from different periods in the development of psychological and psychiatric study. In psychiatry mental disorder is defined as a significant impairment of an individual’s cognitive, affective and/or relational abilities which may require intervention and may be a recognized, medically diagnosable illness or disorder. There are several types of mental illnesses. The symptoms and treatment of each vary from type to type. Mental disorders vary in severity some are mild and some so severe they interrupt with the daily activities of the sufferer making life quite difficult. Treatment also varies with some, therapy and counseling is sufficient but with others medication is needed with the counseling, some may even require hospitalization as they are a danger to themselves and to those around them. There are generally accepted four types of mental illnesses . 1. Organic brain disorders. 2. Mood and anxiety disorders. 3. Personality disorders. 4. Psychotic Disorders STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Mental illness can have a devastating effect on an individual, his or her family and friends and on the community in many ways. How it affects the individual is obvious, reduced ability to care for oneself, strong negative emotions, distorted thoughts, inappropriate behavior, and reduced ability to maintain a relationship are only a few possible outcomes. On friends and family, it can be a major responsibility to care for someone suffering from a mental illness, the emotional and behavioral components of some illnesses can be very difficult at times to understand and to deal with. Mental illness also affects the community due to the high incidence of homelessness and unemployment in some serious disorders such as schizophrenia. These are the obvious effects of mental illness, but there are less obvious effects due to the misperception of the mentally ill. When most people hear the term mentally ill, many think of severe cases and associated these individuals with bizarre behavior, violence, and a lack of caring about themselves and the world. In this sense, people with mental illness are in most cases almost dehumanized. They are avoided and feared. Herein lays the problem. Their treatment by society and by the law needs to be re-examined. A mentally ill person can, in extreme cases, be a threat to society. Major criminals are often found to be mentally unstable in most cases. This leads to public hazards as the individual engages in covert behavior, trying to put in order what he or she sees as disordered. There are many public and social problems imposed by the mental illness. These include incapacitation of individuals incapable of their own basic needs. They have disrupted family relations, often due to burdens of care, disruption of ordinary day-to-day activities or threats of harm. They also have disruptive influences in society and may be public nuisances and may engage in offensive and antisocial behavior posing threat to the lives and safety of others. Mentally retarded criminals are especially vulnerable and frequently taken advantage of during legal proceedings. Because of their limited cognitive abilities, unreliable memories, and characteristic suggestibility, it is very difficult for these defendants to comprehend abstract legal concepts and to assist in their own defense by helping their lawyers to develop the facts of the case. Those who suffer from mental retardation are at times eager to please, especially persons of authority, as well as unable to cope with stressful situations. As a result, many even make false confessions. In addition, because mentally retarded individuals are unable to understand the proceedings, it is not uncommon that the defendants alienate judges by smiling, sleeping, staring off in court, or otherwise acting in a way that may be interpreted as callous and unremorseful. Others with mental retardation are ashamed of their disabilities and try to hide them, preventing their defense and the judge from fully appreciating the effect their condition has on their conduct. Mentally retarded defendants, especially those who are not financially well-off, are often represented by ineffective counsel; courts often appoint advocates who are â€Å"too inexperienced, overworked, or uninterested† to properly defend their clients. Finally, mentally retarded defendants face bias in the criminal justice system- including, the police, defense advocates and judges - who are vastly ignorant of the nature and significance of mental retardation, are often more concerned with the political and professional consequences of obtaining a â€Å"victorious† sentence than seriously considering the effect this. There is, therefore, concern that sane persons might find themselves stripped of certain basic rights. The aim of this paper is to highlight the ethical discrepancies in law that haunt the sentencing of the mentally ill. JUSTIFICATION The objectives of sentencing can be summarized as retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation . Retribution is satisfied when the assailant is successfully sentenced as a punishment for his wrongs. It’s based on the notion that he owes a measure of suffering to those he wronged and thus deserves punishment. Deterrence seeks to move all other men to conform to social norms. He serves as an example to the rest, that if they don’t comply to the law they will be punished. Rehabilitation is the most important objective; teaching the wrong doer that he made a mistake and through his imposed sentence help him better himself to be able to live among society. Sentencing the mentally ill poses a difficult ethical and moral problem; most human beings have the will to choose between right and wrong once they step outside these limits blame and punishment may be imposed upon them. We cannot blame or impose punishment upon those lacking responsibility. At the same time the wronged person may feel the person pardoned by the law as a result of his insanity as having gotten off easy. There needs to be some sort of balance. All men may be equal before the law but as it is in the case of a child who commits a crime, the mentally disordered are hardly capable of understanding the full extent of their actions. Punishing them without considering their condition is quite unethical and doesn’t fulfill any sense of moral judicial victory. The mentally ill are defined in law as persons lacking the required degree of intelligence, reasoning power and foresight of consequence. If they were held criminally responsible he would be made to suffer harsh sanctions without serving the purpose of individual deterrence. It might also fail to serve general deterrence in that most men won’t be able to identify with the offender as he is so different from most men that the crime can be attributed to the difference. On retribution the individual is seen to act as a result of forces beyond his control. He is less likely to be blamed than to be helped to restore balance between him and society. He is seen as sick rather than evil and as a result of his illness. If a man cannot make the calculations or muster the feelings demanded of him deterrence can only be effective with persons who can understand signals directed to them by the law. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The issue is the question of fairness the sense that it’s unjust and unfair to stigmatize the mentally ill as criminals and punish them for their crimes. The criminal law exists to deter and to punish those who would or who would choose to do wrong. If they cannot exercise choice, they cannot be deterred and it’s unethical to punish them. The mentally ill may have the element of actus reus but they lack the mens rea needed. In situations where mens rea is existent it is of a highly diminished level such that they should not be judged on the same note as a man in his full mental capacities. The mentally disordered are entitled to be held responsible for their actions, but their conditions may be relevant in sentencing and might result in mitigation on grounds of less moral blameworthiness, or aggravation because of constituting a danger to the public. The legal system should accommodate them. LITERATURE REVIEW The following literature was relied on. I. Blackstone’s Criminal Practice 2006 This book focuses on criminal practice in the U.K it gives a breakdown of criminal law setting out the elements of criminal law, defenses, sentencing guidelines and penalties. It’s extremely useful on studying the similarities and differences between Kenyan and U.K sentencing law. II. Criminal Law Text And Materials C.M.V Clarkson And H.M Reating 4th Edition C.M.V Clarkson and H.M.Reating deal with the basics of criminal law. The book gives information on criminal law defenses delving into the defense of mental illness from the perspective of different authors and judgments from different judges III. Mental Health Act U.K 1983 The Mental Health Act 1983 makes provision for the compulsory detention and treatment in hospital of those with mental disorder. The Act is in ten parts, among them Application of the Act (the scope) Compulsory admission to hospital and Guardianship Patients concerned in criminal proceedings or under sentence Consent to treatment IV. Mental Health Act U.K 2007 Although the structure of the Mental Health Act 1983 remains intact, some significant changes have been made to it by the 2007 legislation. They include: ? The introduction of a simplified definition of mental disorder that will apply throughout the Act, and the abolition of the current four separate categories of mental disorder ? A requirement that appropriate treatment must be available if patients are to be subject to detention or the new provisions for supervised treatment in the community ? The introduction of supervised community treatment, which will be available for patients following an initial period of detention and treatment in hospital ? The replacement of the Responsible Medical Officer with a Responsible Clinician, who need not be a consultant psychiatrist (but must be an ‘approved clinician’) ? The replacement of the Approved Social Worker with an Approved Mental Health Professional; in addition to registered social workers other mental health professionals will be able to take on the role of AMHP after suitable training V. Mental Health Act L.O.K 1991 The Mental Health Act Cap 248 seeks to consolidate and amend the laws relating to persons suffering from mental disorders for the custody of their persons, management of their estates; for management and control of mental hospitals; and for connected purposes. Section 38 of the act which deals with court procedure merely gives provisions on the court session being proceeded on camera VI. Criminal Procedure Act The Criminal Procedure Act provides if the defense of lunacy is adduced at the trial or if it appears to the court, in so far as finding the accused guilty is concerned that he did the act but was insane so as not to be responsible for the act or omission the court makes a verdict of guilty but insane. When such a finding is made the court is required to make a report to the president. In the meantime the accused is remanded in custody. The president or minister may order such person to be detained in a mental hospital or prison or such suitable place of custody Research Papers on Legal And Ethical Issues Involved In Sentencing Mentally Disordered OffendersArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Canaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New EmployeesThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseThree Concepts of PsychodynamicCapital PunishmentRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andMind TravelGenetic EngineeringEffects of Television Violence on Children

Palestine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Palestine - Essay Example Under these techniques the Israeli Government restricted the citizenship for population of East Jerusalem; they also demolished the illegal houses. Government limited the city budget, and most of it evacuated the Palestinians who were living at West Bank. Due to these actions of the Government, people of Palestine felt threat to their homes and simultaneously their livings. Government in 2002 established a Separation Wall around East Jerusalem, this Wall separated the relations. People living inside the barrier were forced to be divided and had to disrupt their connections with the people left outside. This caused difficulty for the people of Palestine because many had to end-up their relations, businesses were highly affected, many had to face economic downfall, a lot lost their jobs, transportation problems etc. Before this partition East and West Jerusalem were one .i.e. all the operations were inter-related, and thus after the Partition daily lives of Palestinians is badly affected. The ways to enter or exit the East Jerusalem, there are check-points to pass where the passengers have to face strict inspections. These inspections have become the reason for the development of negative feelings regarding distress and degradation among the people. People avoid passing that passage because it causes disruption in their daily life (Spencer, 76). Restriction of Construction has caused the people of East Jerusalem to remain with their old homes and buildings. This has become a barrier for the businesses .i.e. no more buildings. One major difficulty is that families are expanding and the space is becoming congested. As a result there can be seen an increasing number of migration towards the cities at East, such as Al-Ezariyya and Abu-Dis. People migrate in-order to find peace and quality of life, but due to the restrictions of passing through Wall and strict

Discuss what is mean by Universal Grammar. How does the process of Essay

Discuss what is mean by Universal Grammar. How does the process of language acquisition provide evidence for Universal Grammar. give concrete examples. What ot - Essay Example As usual, "the company" now has an earlier deadline than they had given me, despite them still not having given me the entire chapter, so I hope you're not late. Best, anon Trask (1995) presented two types of evidence in support of Chomsky's theory that the innate condition of the human brain at birth explained language acquisition, a process that occurs without effort or direct or indirect teaching in children. First, despite the differences in the experiences of children within and across cultures, in deaf and hearing children, and in those who are and are not mentally retarded, the same stages in the same order occur in acquiring language. Second, in support of the role of the human brain at birth, there is evidence that those who have not been exposed to a language past a "critical period" of 12 or 13 years have not been able to learn the rules of a language. Trask (1995) reviewed evidence supporting "universal grammar," a phrase describing Chomsky's revolutionary theory of psycholinguistics, i.e., there are linguistic universals (commonalities among all languages), the human brain is equipped at birth for the acquisition of language, and thus children acquire language without either direct or indirect instruction. ... over the history of human existence, it is disingenuous to describe the demise of the Skinnerian operant-conditioning model (referred to by Trask as the "imitation-and reinforcement model,", p. 140) as occurring "not so many years ago" or, more dramatically, "in recent years" (p. 140). One could provide pages of citations to support recognition of the brief time course of Chomsky's "revolution," but Pinker, himself a giant in psycholinguistic theory (Rondal, 1993), should suffice (interview, Rondal, 1993). Chomsky's theory of language acquisition (beginning in 1959, cited in Pinker's interview, Rondal, 1993) quickly relegated (unusual in the social sciences) to a chapter in the history of psychology the then-accepted Skinnerian operant-conditioning theory that babies learn language by reinforcement of language imitations. Because most humans have observed babies and young children, it is understandable that social scientists, among others, would have recognized the essential correctness of implicating the brain at birth - by comparing, for example, their own struggles in learning a second language, even if in surroundings where the second language was spoken, with the ease with which children not only acquire a first language, but with the ease with which immigrant children, compared to their parents, acquire a second language. Understanding why the theory that language developed as a function only of experience was accepted in the first place requires recognizing the virtual destructi on of experimental psychology caused by the prior "behaviorist revolution" - which virtually outlawed even the thought of innate dispositions (Watson, 1919, as cited in Hunt & Ellis, 2004). In this way, one might think of Chomsky, not to minimize his genius, trained in linguistics,

Bob likes cheese Essay Example for Free

Bob likes cheese Essay In these pages a few years ago, I reported on some of my findings at having reached very old age. I was then in my early 90s. Five years further down the hill, I have a few more matters to note. Certainly I have not gained in wisdom, but due to so little physical activity and fewer social goings-on, I have begun to inhabit the static house of my head. To my surprise I find it a somewhat well-furnished abode, occupied with what I remember, have heard recently, and observed. Ernest Hemingway boils things down to the essentials, his friend William Faulkner lets the pot boil over, spilling onto the stove, down onto the floor, and maybe somehow catching the kitchen on fire. With Faulkner we can feel the vines tangling, the magnolias blooming, the plants around Emilys house breeding, helping to hide her from the harshness of the world she lives in, a world in which she doesnt really belong. This tangling of blooming and breeding is replicated in the fancy words and long, complicated sentences for which Faulkner is famous. Part of lushness is that other side of nature, the side we might not want to look at, and the side thats in store for everything in nature: death and decay. Faulkner never neglects this side (certainly not here), and with every blooming rose, he gives us a rotting one, too. The lushness is also ironic, and perhaps a reaction against a lack of lushness. We know that although Emilys place was probably lush and overgrown, she never went outside to enjoy it, and only rarely even let in the light from outside. The story not only celebrates a lush life, by representing its opposite, but also cautions us against alienating others, against pushing others to hide from the light of life. Next Page: Whats Up With the Title?

Free Essay on Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter - Good vs. Evil :: Scarlet Letter essays

Good vs. Evil in The Scarlet Letter The Scarlet Letter is a wonderful and not so traditional example of the good versus evil theme. What makes this a unique instance of good versus evil is that either side could be considered either one. Hester could very easily have been deduced as evil, or the "bad guy," as she was by the townspeople. That is, she was convicted of adultery, a horrible sin of the time. As for punishment, a sentence to wear a scarlet "A" upon her chest, it would hardly be considered a burden or extreme sentence in present day. Another sin that Hester committed was the fact that she never told who the father of her child, Pear, forcing her to be without a father. Hester's silence also caused Dimmesdale to live in torture every day. Chillingsworth was also hurt by Hester's act of adultery and because of her, his life was destroyed and the only thing he could do was seek revenge against the man who had been with her. Hester's child Pearl had to be raised by only one parent and that caused the child to be less disciplined and more outrageous making the townspeople more suspicious of who the child's father was. It also caused the religious leaders to wonder about the religious stability of the child, and if there might be witchcraft involved, "The little baggage have witchcraft in her"(p112). Hester also caused numerous a sleepless night for Dimmesdale. If Hester had just announced that Dimmesdale was the father he would have never have lived through all the guilt that she forced him into. Dimmesdale was a weak and frail man because of Hester's silence. Chillengsworth was pushed into a life of revenge and anguish since Hester had betrayed their marriage and Chillengsworth's trust in her. She had turned Chillengsworth into a fiend, "I have already told thee what I am, a fiend!" (P169). Hester admitts to causing Chillengsworth into becoming the fiend as well. The guilt rests solely on Hester Prynne for destroying not just her own life from this sin but also of many other people such as the minister Dimmesdale, the physician Chillengsworth, and her own daughter Pearl. Free Essay on Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter - Good vs. Evil :: Scarlet Letter essays Good vs. Evil in The Scarlet Letter The Scarlet Letter is a wonderful and not so traditional example of the good versus evil theme. What makes this a unique instance of good versus evil is that either side could be considered either one. Hester could very easily have been deduced as evil, or the "bad guy," as she was by the townspeople. That is, she was convicted of adultery, a horrible sin of the time. As for punishment, a sentence to wear a scarlet "A" upon her chest, it would hardly be considered a burden or extreme sentence in present day. Another sin that Hester committed was the fact that she never told who the father of her child, Pear, forcing her to be without a father. Hester's silence also caused Dimmesdale to live in torture every day. Chillingsworth was also hurt by Hester's act of adultery and because of her, his life was destroyed and the only thing he could do was seek revenge against the man who had been with her. Hester's child Pearl had to be raised by only one parent and that caused the child to be less disciplined and more outrageous making the townspeople more suspicious of who the child's father was. It also caused the religious leaders to wonder about the religious stability of the child, and if there might be witchcraft involved, "The little baggage have witchcraft in her"(p112). Hester also caused numerous a sleepless night for Dimmesdale. If Hester had just announced that Dimmesdale was the father he would have never have lived through all the guilt that she forced him into. Dimmesdale was a weak and frail man because of Hester's silence. Chillengsworth was pushed into a life of revenge and anguish since Hester had betrayed their marriage and Chillengsworth's trust in her. She had turned Chillengsworth into a fiend, "I have already told thee what I am, a fiend!" (P169). Hester admitts to causing Chillengsworth into becoming the fiend as well. The guilt rests solely on Hester Prynne for destroying not just her own life from this sin but also of many other people such as the minister Dimmesdale, the physician Chillengsworth, and her own daughter Pearl.

One Proposed Maxim as a Universal Law Essay

1. State your proposed act as a maxim: â€Å"I will take ZAR 620 000 000.00 (A) when I’ve done a year’s work (C) in order to get really, really rich (E).† 2. Restate this maxim as a universal law; â€Å"All people (7 billion of them) will take ZAR 620 000 000.00 when they’ve done a year’s work in order to get really, really rich.† 3.Ask whether your maxim is conceivable in a world ruled by the universal law; In a real world if individuals earned 620million for a years worth of work there are bound to be huge increases of income and spending going around the markets. A downfall of the economy will occur due to business halt in the competing of prices. People will be greedy and will want everything that money could possibly buy which will result in shortages of products and services. Market demand and supply will cease to exist. In conclusion, this maxim is not conceivable in the real world ruled by universal law. 4. Ask whether you would rationally act on your maxim in such a world. IF I had to earn 620million one years worth of work, I would honestly be over indulging and over spending money on unnecessary material items and food. Eventually I would be following an unhealthy lifestyle resulting in many health related problems like stress, obesity and so forth. Of course I would be really rich! But what would my purpose be thereafter? I therefore would never act rationally in such a world. Step 2: Form an opinion On the basis of your analysis, answer the following questions: †¢What would Kant probably have said about Whitey Bassons (or you) earning ZAR 620,000,000.00? (You might want to do a bit of research into the nature of Whitey Basson’s 2010 earnings). According to Kants theory this would be categorized as morally binding. A talented guy like bassoon is terribly rare. I think that this earnings would be seen as an imperfect duty, because this depends on the preference of humankind. Whitey Basson cultivated his own talent by investing his good education and remarkable people skills into building the business and making it the most successful one today. Kant would therefore accept the earnings for whitey has not stolen from anyone or broken any rules. He reaped the rewards of his benefits. †¢What do you think about Whitey Basson (or you) earning ZAR 620,000,000.00? However, It is unfair to look at them as one year’s income, as those were earned over 40 years. So he deserved to be paid a huge amount for his enormous talent and knowledge in  growing the business into a successful one. They make 50m-60m sales a month in seven jurisdictions. It is fair to be rewarded for such hard work and dedication but not in such large percentage increases especially when the state of the economy is not as rapid as the percentage increase in income. †¢Why do you think this? These figures make no sense of the argument that companies need to pay such vast amounts in order to retain top skills, because more than 20 of the top 100 highest paid executives in 2010 are no longer in their positions today. According to a source â€Å"Figures proved that South Africa was a rich country, but the distribution of that wealth left just 20 people owning R112.2 billion, while 48 percent of South Africans were living below the poverty level of R322 a month. Sixteen percent of employed workers earned less than R500, 33.4 percent earned less than R1 000 and 60 percent earned less than R2 500 a month†